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Review article, stress in academic and athletic performance in collegiate athletes: a narrative review of sources and monitoring strategies.

1 School of Kinesiology, Applied Health and Recreation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States
2 Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, CA, United States
3 Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, United States
4 Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States

College students are required to manage a variety of stressors related to academic, social, and financial commitments. In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities. The strength and conditioning professional sees the athlete on nearly a daily basis and is able to recognize the changes in performance and behavior an athlete may exhibit as a result of these stressors. As such, the strength and conditioning professional may serve an integral role in the monitoring of these stressors and may be able to alter training programs to improve both performance and wellness. The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population.

Introduction

The college years are a period of time when young adults experience a significant amount of change and a variety of novel challenges. Academic performance, social demands, adjusting to life away from home, and financial challenges are just a few of the burdens college students must confront ( Humphrey et al., 2000 ; Paule and Gilson, 2010 ; Aquilina, 2013 ). In addition to these stressors, collegiate athletes are required to spend a substantial amount of time participating in activities related to their sport, such as attending practices and training sessions, team meetings, travel, and competitions ( Humphrey et al., 2000 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; Davis et al., 2019 ; Hyatt and Kavazis, 2019 ). These commitments, in addition to the normal stress associated with college life, may increase a collegiate-athlete's risk of experiencing both physical and mental issues ( Li et al., 2017 ; Moreland et al., 2018 ) that may affect their overall health and wellness. For these reasons, it is essential that coaches understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes face in order to help them manage the potentially deleterious effects stress may have on athletic and academic performance.

Strength and conditioning coaches are allied health care professionals whose primary job is to enhance fitness of individuals for the purpose of improving athletic performance ( Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). As such, many universities and colleges hire strength and conditioning coaches as part of their athletic staff to help athletes maximize their physical potential ( Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). Strength and conditioning coaches strive to increase athletic performance by the systematic application of physical stress to the body via resistance training, and other forms of exercise, to yield a positive adaptation response ( Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). For this reason, they need to understand and to learn how to manage athletes' stress. Additionally, based on the cumulative nature of stress, it is important that both mental and emotional stressors are also considered in programming. It is imperative that strength and conditioning coaches are aware of the multitude of stressors collegiate athletes encounter, in order to incorporate illness and injury risk management education into their training programs ( Radcliffe et al., 2015 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ).

Based on the large number of contact hours strength and conditioning coaches spend with their athletes, they are in an optimal position to assist athletes with developing effective coping strategies to manage stress. By doing so, strength and conditioning coaches may be able to help reach the overarching goal of improving the health, wellness, fitness, and performance of the athletes they coach. The purpose of this review article is to provide the strength and conditioning professional with a foundational understanding of the types of stressors collegiate athletes may experience, and how these stressors may impact mental health and athletic performance. Suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce potential physiological and psychological impacts of stress will also be provided.

Stress and the Stress Response

In its most simplistic definition, stress can be described as a state of physical and psychological activation in response to external demands that exceed one's ability to cope and requires a person to adapt or change behavior. As such, both cognitive or environmental events that trigger stress are called stressors ( Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). Stressors can be acute or chronic based on the duration of activation. Acute stressors may be defined as a stressful situation that occurs suddenly and results in physiological arousal (e.g., increase in hormonal levels, blood flow, cardiac output, blood sugar levels, pupil and airway dilation, etc.) ( Selye, 1976 ). Once the situation is normalized, a cascade of hormonal reactions occurs to help the body return to a resting state (i.e., homeostasis). However, when acute stressors become chronic in nature, they may increase an individual's risk of developing anxiety, depression, or metabolic disorders ( Selye, 1976 ). Moreover, the literature has shown that cumulative stress is correlated with an increased susceptibility to illness and injury ( Szivak and Kraemer, 2015 ; Mann et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ). The impact of stress is individualistic and subjective by nature ( Williams and Andersen, 1998 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). Additionally, the manner in which athletes respond to a situational or environmental stressor is often determined by their individual perception of the event ( Gould and Udry, 1994 ; Williams and Andersen, 1998 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). In this regard, the athlete's perception can either be positive (eustress) or negative (distress). Even though they both cause physiological arousal, eustress also generates positive mental energy whereas distress generates anxiety ( Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). Therefore, it is essential that an athlete has the tools and ability to cope with these stressors in order to have the capacity to manage both acute and chronic stress. As such, it is important to understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes are confronted with and how these stressors impact an athlete's performance, both athletically and academically.

Literature Search/Data Collection

The articles included in this review were identified via online databases PubMed, MEDLINE, and ISI Web of Knowledge from October 15th 2019 through January 15th 2020. The search strategy combined the keywords “academic stress,” “athletic stress,” “stress,” “stressor,” “college athletes,” “student athletes,” “collegiate athletes,” “injury,” “training,” “monitoring.” Duplicated articles were then removed. After reading the titles and abstracts, all articles that met the inclusion criteria were considered eligible for inclusion in the review. Subsequently, all eligible articles were read in their entirety and were either included or removed from the present review.

Inclusion Criteria

The studies included met all the following criteria: (i) published in English-language journals; (ii) targeted college athletes; (iii) publication was either an original research paper or a literature review; (iv) allowed the extraction of data for analysis.

Data Analysis

Relevant data regarding participant characteristics (i.e., gender, academic status, sports) and study characteristics were extracted. Articles were analyzed and divided into two separate sections based on their specific topics: Academic Stress and Athletic Stress. Then, strategies for monitoring and workload management are discussed in the final section.

Academic Stress

Fundamentally, collegiate athletes have two major roles they must balance as part of their commitment to a university: being a college student and an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students ( Aquilina, 2013 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; de Brandt et al., 2018 ; Davis et al., 2019 ). This stress may be further compounded among collegiate athletes based on their need to be successful in the classroom, while simultaneously excelling in their respective sport ( Aquilina, 2013 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; Huml et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ). Davis et al. (2019) conducted surveys on 173 elite junior alpine skiers and reported significant moderate to strong correlations between perceived stress and several variables including depressed mood ( r = 0.591), sleep disturbance ( r = 0.459), fatigue ( r = 0.457), performance demands ( r = 0.523), and goals and development ( r = 0.544). Academic requirements were the highest scoring source of stress of all variables and was most strongly correlated with perceived stress ( r = 0.467). Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance ( Davis et al., 2019 ). This further corroborates the findings of Hamlin et al. (2019) . The investigators reported that during periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury ( Hamlin et al., 2019 ). For this reason, coaches should be aware of and sensitive to the stressors athletes experience as part of the cyclical nature of the academic year and attempt to help athletes find solutions to balancing athletic and academic demands.

According to Aquilina (2013) , collegiate athletes tend to be more committed to sports development and may view their academic career as a contingency plan to their athletic career, rather than a source of personal development. As a result, collegiate athletes often, but certainly not always, prioritize athletic participation over their academic responsibilities ( Miller and Kerr, 2002 ; Cosh and Tully, 2014 , 2015 ). Nonetheless, scholarships are usually predicated on both athletic and academic performance. For instance, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) requires collegiate athletes to achieve and maintain a certain grade point average (GPA). Furthermore, they are also often required to also uphold a certain GPA to maintain an athletic scholarship. The pressure to maintain both high levels of academic and athletic performance may increase the likelihood of triggering mental health issues (i.e., anxiety and depression) ( Li et al., 2017 ; Moreland et al., 2018 ).

Mental health issues are a significant concern among college students. There has been an increased emphasis placed on the mental health of collegiate athletes in recent years ( Petrie et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Reardon et al., 2019 ). Based on the 2019 National College Health Assessment survey from the American College Health Association (ACHA) consisting of 67,972 participants, 27.8% of college students reported anxiety, and 20.2% reported experiencing depression which negatively affected their academic performance ( American College Health Association American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II, 2019 ). Approximately 65.7% (50.7% males and 71.8% females) reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the past 12 months, and 45.1% (37.1% males and 47.6% females) reported feeling so depressed that it was difficult for them to function. However, only 24.3% (13% males and 28.4% females) reported being diagnosed and treated by a professional in the past 12 months. Collegiate athletes are not immune to these types of issues. According to information presented by the NCAA, many certified athletic trainers anecdotally state that anxiety is an issue affecting the collegiate-athlete population ( NCAA, 2014 ). However, despite the fact that collegiate athletes are exposed to numerous stressors, they are less likely to seek help at a university counseling center than non-athletes ( NCAA, 2014 ), which could be related to stigmas that surround mental health services ( NCAA, 2014 ; Kaier et al., 2015 ; Egan, 2019 ). This not only has significant implications related to their psychological well-being, but also their physiological health, and consequently their performance. For instance, in a study by Li et al. (2017) it was found that NCAA Division I athletes who reported preseason anxiety symptoms had a 2.3 times greater injury incidence rate compared to athletes who did not report. This same study discovered that male athletes who reported preseason anxiety and depression had a 2.1 times greater injury incidence, compared to male athletes who did not report symptoms of anxiety and depression. ( Lavallée and Flint, 1996 ) also reported a correlation between anxiety and both injury frequency and severity among college football players ( r = 0.43 and r = 0.44, respectively). In their study, athletes reporting high tension/anxiety had a higher rate of injury. It has been suggested that the occurrence of stress and anxiety may cause physiological responses, such as an increase in muscle tension, physical fatigue, and a decrease in neurocognitive and perception processes that can lead to physical injuries ( Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). For this reason, it is reasonable to consider that academic stressors may potentiate effects of stress and result in injury and illness in collegiate athletes.

Periods of more intense academic stress increase the susceptibility to illness or injury ( Mann et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2019 ). For example, Hamlin et al. (2019) investigated levels of perceived stress, training loads, injury, and illness incidence in 182 collegiate athletes for the period of one academic year. The highest levels of stress and incidence of illness arise during the examination weeks occurring within the competitive season. In addition, the authors also reported the odds ratio, which is the occurrence of the outcome of interest (i.e., injury), based off the given exposure to the variables of interest (i.e., perceived mood, sleep duration, increased academic stress, and energy levels). Based on a logistic regression, they found that each of the four variables (i.e., mood, energy, sleep duration, and academic stress) was related to the collegiate athletes' likelihood to incur injuries. In summary, decreased levels of perceived mood (odds ratio of 0.89, 0.85–0.0.94 CI) and sleep duration (odds ratio of 0.94, 0.91–0.97 CI), and increased academic stress (odds ratio of 0.91, 0.88–0.94 CI) and energy levels (odds ratio of 1.07, 1.01–1.14 CI), were able to predict injury in these athletes. This corroborates Mann et al. (2016) who found NCAA Division I football athletes at a Bowl Championship Subdivision university were more likely to become ill or injured during an academically stressful period (i.e., midterm exams or other common test weeks) than during a non-testing week (odds ratio of 1.78 for high academic stress). The athletes were also less likely to get injured during training camp (odds ratio of 3.65 for training camp). Freshmen collegiate athletes may be especially more susceptible to mental health issues than older students. Their transition includes not only the academic environment with its requirements and expectations, but also the adaptation to working with a new coach and teammates. In this regard, Yang et al. (2007) found an increase in the likelihood of depression that freshmen athletes experienced, as these freshmen were 3.27 times more likely to experience depression than their older teammates. While some stressors are recurrent and inherent in academic life (e.g., attending classes, homework, etc.), others are more situational (e.g., exams, midterms, projects) and may be anticipated by the strength and conditioning coach.

Athletic Stress

The domain of athletics can expose collegiate athletes to additional stressors that are specific to their cohort (e.g., sport-specific, team vs. individual sport) ( Aquilina, 2013 ). Time spent training (e.g., physical conditioning and sports practice), competition schedules (e.g., travel time, missing class), dealing with injuries (e.g., physical therapy/rehabilitation, etc.), sport-specific social support (e.g., teammates, coaches) and playing status (e.g., starting, non-starter, being benched, etc.) are just a few of the additional challenges collegiate athletes must confront relative to their dual role of being a student and an athlete ( Maloney and McCormick, 1993 ; Scott et al., 2008 ; Etzel, 2009 ; Fogaca, 2019 ). Collegiate athletes who view the demands of stressors from academics and sports as a positive challenge (i.e., an individual's self-confidence or belief in oneself to accomplish the task outweighs any anxiety or emotional worry that is felt) may potentially increase learning capacity and competency ( NCAA, 2014 ). However, when these demands are perceived as exceeding the athlete's capacity, this stress can be detrimental to the student's mental and physical health as well as to sport performance ( Ivarsson et al., 2017 ; Li et al., 2017 ).

As previously stated, time management has been shown to be a challenge to collegiate athletes. The NCAA rules state that collegiate athletes may only engage in required athletic activities for 4 h per day and 20 h/week during in-season and 8 h/week during off-season throughout the academic year. Although these rules have been clearly outlined, the most recent NCAA GOALS (2016) study reported alarming numbers regarding time commitment to athletic-related activities. Data from over 21,000 collegiate athletes from 600 schools across Divisions I, II, and III were included in this study. Although a breakdown of time commitments was not provided, collegiate athletes reported dedicating up to 34 h per week to athletics (e.g., practices, weight training, meetings with coaches, tactical training, competitions, etc.), in addition to spending between 38.5 and 40 h per week working on academic-related tasks. This report also showed a notable trend related to athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season ( DTHOMAS, 2013 ). These numbers show how important it is for collegiate athletes to develop time management skills to be successful in both academics and athletics. Overall, most collegiate athletes have expressed a need to find time to enjoy their college experience outside of athletic obligations ( Paule and Gilson, 2010 ). Despite that, because of the increasing demand for excellence in academics and athletics, collegiate athletes' free time with family and friends is often scarce ( Paule and Gilson, 2010 ). Consequently, trainers, coaches, and teammates will likely be the primary source of their weekly social interactivity.

Social interactions within their sport have also been found to relate to factors that may impact an athlete's perceived stress. Interactions with coaches and trainers can be effective or deleterious to an athlete. Effective coaching includes a coaching style that allows for a boost of the athlete's motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy in addition to mitigating the effects of anxiety. On the other hand, poor coaching (i.e., the opposite of effective coaching) can have detrimental psychological effects on an athlete ( Gearity and Murray, 2011 ). In a closer examination of the concept of poor coaching practices, Gearity and Murray (2011) interviewed athletes about their experiences of receiving poor coaching. Following analysis of the interviews, the authors identified the main themes of the “coach being uncaring and unfair,” “practicing poor teaching inhibiting athlete's mental skills,” and “athlete coping.” They stated that inhibition of an athlete's mental skills and coping are associated with the psychological well-being of an athlete. Also, poor coaching may result in mental skills inhibition, distraction, insecurity, and ultimately team division ( Gearity and Murray, 2011 ). This combination of factors may compound the negative impacts of stress in athletes and might be especially important for in injured athletes.

Injured athletes have previously been reported to have elevated stress as a result of heightened worry about returning to pre-competition status ( Crossman, 1997 ), isolation from teammates if the injury is over a long period of time ( Podlog and Eklund, 2007 ) and/or reduced mood or depressive symptoms ( Daly et al., 1995 ). In addition, athletes who experience prolonged negative thoughts may be more likely to have decreased rehabilitation attendance or adherence, worse functional outcomes from rehabilitation (e.g., on measures of proprioception, muscular endurance, and agility), and worse post-injury performance ( Brewer, 2012 ).

Monitoring Considerations

In addition to poor coaching, insufficient workload management can hinder an athlete's ability to recover and adapt to training, leading to fatigue accumulation ( Gabbett et al., 2017 ). Excessive fatigue can impair decision-making ability, coordination and neuromuscular control, and ultimately result in overtraining and injury ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). For instance, central fatigue was found to be a direct contributor to anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players ( Mclean and Samorezov, 2009 ). Introducing monitoring tools may serve as a means to reduce the detrimental effects of stress in collegiate athletes. Recent research on relationships between athlete workloads, injury, and performance has highlighted the benefits of athlete monitoring ( Drew and Finch, 2016 ; Jaspers et al., 2017 ).

Athlete monitoring is often assessed with the measuring and management of workload associated with a combination of sport-related and non-sport-related stressors ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). An effective workload management program should aim to detect excessive fatigue, identify its causes, and constantly adapt rest, recovery, training, and competition loads respectively ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). The workload for each athlete is based off their current levels of physical and psychological fatigue, wellness, fitness, health, and recovery ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). Accumulation of situational or physical stressors will likely result in day-to-day fluctuations in the ability to move external loads and strength train effectively ( Fry and Kraemer, 1997 ). Periods of increased academic stress may cause increased levels of fatigue, which can be identified by using these monitoring tools, thereby assisting the coaches with modulating the workload during these specific periods. Coaches who plan to incorporate monitoring and management strategies must have a clear understanding of what they want to achieve from athlete monitoring ( Gabbett et al., 2017 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ).

Monitoring External Loads

External load refers to the physical work (e.g., number of sprints, weight lifted, distance traveled, etc.) completed by the athlete during competition, training, and activities of daily living ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). This type of load is independent of the athlete's individual characteristics ( Wallace et al., 2009 ). Monitoring external loading can aid in the designing of training programs which mimic the external load demands of an athlete's sport, guide rehabilitation programs, and aid in the detection of spikes in external load that may increase the risk of injury ( Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ).

The means of quantifying external load can involve metrics as simple as pitch counts in baseball and softball ( Fleisig and Andrews, 2012 ; Shanley et al., 2012 ) or quantifying lifting session training loads (e.g., sum value of weight lifted during an exercise x number of repetitions × the number of sets). Neuromuscular function testing is another more common way of analyzing external load. This is typically done using such measures such as the counter movement jump, squat jump, or drop jump. A force platform can be used to measure a myriad of outcomes (e.g., peak power, ground contact time, time to take-off, reactive strength index, and jump height), or simply measure jump height in a more traditional manner. Jumping protocols, such as the countermovement jump, have been adopted to examine the recovery of neuromuscular function after athletic competition with significant decreases for up to 72 h commonly reported ( Andersson et al., 2008 ; Magalhães et al., 2010 ; Twist and Highton, 2013 ). ( Gathercole et al., 2015 ) found reductions in 18 different neuromuscular variables in collegiate athletes following a fatiguing protocol. The variables of eccentric duration, concentric duration, total duration, time to peak force/power, and flight time:contraction time ratio, derived from a countermovement jump were deemed suitable for detecting neuromuscular fatigue with the rise in the use of technology for monitoring, certain sports have adopted specific software that can aid in the monitoring of stress. For example, power output can be measured using devices such as SRM™ or PowerTap™ in cycling ( Jobson et al., 2009 ). This data can be analyzed to provide information such as average power or normalized power. The power output can then be converted into a Training Stress Score™ via commercially available software ( Marino, 2011 ). More sophisticated measures of external load may involve the use of wearable technology devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, accelerometers, magnetometer, and gyroscope inertial sensors ( Akenhead and Nassis, 2016 ). These devices can quantify external load in several ways, such as duration of movement, total distance covered, speed of movement, acceleration, and decelerations, as well as sport specific movement such as number and height of jumps, number of tackles, or breakaways, etc. ( Akenhead and Nassis, 2016 ). The expansion of marketing of wearable devices has been substantial; however, there are questions of validity and reliability related to external load tracking limitations related to proprietary metrics, as well as the overall cost that should be considered when considering the adoption of such devices ( Aughey et al., 2016 ; Torres-Ronda and Schelling, 2017 ).

Monitoring Internal Loads

While external load may provide information about an athlete's performance capacity and work completed, it does not provide clear evidence of how athletes are coping with and adapting to the external load ( Halson, 2014 ). This type of information comes from the monitoring of internal loads. The term internal load refers to the individual physiological and psychological response to the external stress or load imposed ( Wallace et al., 2009 ). Internal load is influenced by a number of factors such as daily life stressors, the environment around the athlete, and coping ability ( Soligard et al., 2016 ). Indirect measures, such as the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring, and subjective measurements, such as perceived effort (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion), are examples of internal load monitoring. Using subjective measurement systems is a simple and practical method when dealing with large numbers of athletes ( Saw et al., 2016 ; Nässi et al., 2017 ). Subjective reporting of training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion—RPE) ( Coyne et al., 2018 ), Session Rating of Perceived Exertion—sRPE) ( Coyne et al., 2018 ), perceived stress and recovery (Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes—RESTQ-S), and psychological mood states (Profile of Mood States—POMS) have all been found to be a reliable indicator of training load ( Robson-Ansley et al., 2009 ; Saw et al., 2016 ) and only take a few moments to complete. In addition, subjective measures can be more responsive to tracking changes or training responses in athletes than objective measures ( Saw et al., 2016 ).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a common intrinsic measure of how the body is responding to stress. With training, the reduction of resting HR is typically a clear indication of the heart becoming more efficient and not having to beat as frequently. Alternately, increases of resting HR over time with a continuation of training may be an indicator of too much stress. Improper nutrition, such as regular or ongoing suboptimal intakes of vitamins or minerals, may result in increased ventilation and/or increased heart rate ( Lukaski, 2004 ). It has been suggested that the additional stress may lead to parasympathetic hyperactivity, leading to an increase in resting HR ( Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). This largely stems from research examining the sensitivity of various HR derived metrics, such as resting HR, HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) to fluctuations in training load ( Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009 ). HRR in athlete monitoring is the rate of HR decline after the cessation of exercise. A common measure of HHR is the use of a 2 min step test followed by a 60 s HR measurement. The combination of the exercise (stress) on the cardiovascular system and then its subsequent return toward baseline has been used as an indicator of autonomic function and training status in athletes ( Daanen et al., 2012 ). In collegiate athletes it was found that hydration status impacted HRR following moderate to hard straining sessions ( Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018 ). Athletes who followed a prescription hydration plan performed better in the standing long jump, tracked objects faster, and showed faster HRR vs. athletes who followed their normal self-selected hydration plan ( Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018 ). To date, HR monitoring and the various derivatives have mainly been successful in detecting changes in training load and performance in endurance athletes ( Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009 ; Lamberts et al., 2009 ; Thorpe et al., 2017 ). Although heart rate monitoring can provide additional physiological insight for aerobic sessions or events, it thus far has not been found to be an accurate measurement for quantifying internal load during many explosive, short duration anaerobic activities ( Bosquet et al., 2008 ).

A multitude of studies have reported the reliability and validity of using RPE and sRPE across a range of training modalities ( Foster, 1998 ; Impellizzeri et al., 2004 ; Sweet et al., 2004 ). This measure can be used to create a number of metrics such as session load (sRPE × duration in minutes), daily load (sum of all session loads for that day), weekly training load (sum of all daily training loads for entire week), monotony (standard deviation of weekly training load), and strain (daily or weekly training load × monotony) ( Foster, 1998 ). Qualitative questionnaires that monitor stress and fatigue have been well-established as tools to use with athletes (see Table 1 for examples of commonly used questionnaires in research). Using short daily wellness questionnaires may allow coaches to generate a wellness score which then can be adjusted based off of the stress the athlete may be feeling to meet the daily load target ( Foster, 1998 ; Robson-Ansley et al., 2009 ). However, strength and conditioning coaches need to be mindful that these questionnaires may require sports psychologist or other licensed professional to examine and provide the results. An alternative that may be better suited for strength and conditioning professionals to use could be to incorporate some of the themes of those questionnaires into programing.

Table 1 . Overview of common tool/measures used by researchers to monitor training load.

A Multifaceted Approach

Dissociation between external and internal load units may be indicative of the state of fatigue of an athlete. Utilizing a monitoring system in which the athlete is able to make adjustments to their training loads in accordance with how they are feeling in that moment can be a useful tool for assisting the athlete in managing stress. Auto-regulation is a method of programming that allows for adjustments based on the results of one or more readiness tests. When implemented properly, auto regulation enables the coach or athlete to optimize training based on the athlete's given readiness for training on a particular day, thereby aiming to avoid potential overtraining ( Kraemer and Fleck, 2018 ). Several studies have found that using movement velocity to designate resistance training intensities can result in significant improvements in maximal strength and athletic performance ( Pareja-Blanco et al., 2014 , 2017 ; Mann et al., 2015 ). Velocity based training allows the coach and athlete to view real time feedback for the given lifts, thereby allowing them to observe how the athlete is performing in that moment. If the athlete is failing to meet the prescribed velocity or the velocity drops greater than a predetermined amount between sets, then this should signal the coach to investigate. If there is a higher than normal amount of stress on that athlete for the day, that could be a potential reason. This type of combination style program of using a quantitative or objective measurement (s) and a subjective measure of wellness (qualitative questionnaire) has recently been reported to be an effective tool in monitoring individuals apart of a team ( Starling et al., 2019 ). The subjective measure in this study was the readiness to train questionnaire (RTT-Q) and the objective measures were the HRR 6min test (specifically the HRR 60s = recorded as decrease in HR in the 60 s after termination of the test) to assess autonomic function and the standing long jump (SLJ) to measure neuromuscular function. The findings found that, based on the absolute typical error of measurement, the HRR 60s and SLJ could detect medium and large changes in fatigue and readiness. The test took roughly 8 min for the entire team, which included a group consisting of 24 college-age athletes. There are many other combinations of monitoring variables and strategies that coaches and athletes may utilize.

Data Analysis – How to Utilize the Measures

Regardless of what type of monitoring tool a coach or athlete may incorporate, it is essential to understand how to analyze this data. There are excellent resources available which discuss this topic in great detail ( Gabbett et al., 2017 ; Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ). This section will highlight two main conclusions from these sources and briefly describe two of the main statistical practices and concepts discussed. The use of z-scores or modified z-scores has been proposed as a method of detecting meaningful change in athlete data ( Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ). For different monitoring tools listed in Table 1 , the following formula would be an example of how to assess changes: (Athlete daily score—Baseline score)/Standard deviation of baseline. The baseline would likely be based off an appropriate period such as the scores across 2 weeks during the preseason.

In sports and sports science, the use of a magnitude-based inference (MBI) has been suggested as more appropriate and easier to understand when examining meaningful changes in athletic data, than null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) ( Buchheit, 2014 ). Additional methods to assess meaningful change that are similar to MBI are using standard deviation, typical error, effect sizes, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and coefficient of variation ( Thornton et al., 2019 ). It should be noted that all of these methods have faced criticism from sources such as statisticians. It is important to understand that the testing methods, measurements, and analysis should be based on the resources and intended goals from use, which will differ from every group and individual. Once identified, it is up to the practitioner to keep this system the same, in order to collect data that can then be examined to understand meaningful information for each setting ( Thornton et al., 2019 ).

Managing and Coping Strategies

Once the collegiate-athlete has been able to identify the need to balance their stress levels, the athlete may then need to seek out options for managing their stress. Coaches are be able to assist them by sharing information on health and wellness resources available for the students, both on and off campus. Another way a coach can potentially support their athletes is by establishing an open-door policy, wherein the team members feel comfortable approaching a member of the strength and conditioning staff in order to seek out resources for coping with challenges related to stress.

There are some basic skills that strength and conditioning coaches can teach (while staying within their scope of practice). Coaches can introduce their athletes to basic lifestyle concepts, such as practicing deep breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and developing healthy sleep habits (i.e., turning off their mobile devices 1 h before bed and aiming for 8 h of sleep each night, etc.). A survey of strength and conditioning practitioners by Radcliffe et al. (2015) found that strategies used by practitioners included a mix of cognitive and behavioral strategies, which was used as justification for recommending practitioners find opportunities to guide professional development toward awareness strategies. Practitioners reported using a wide variety of psychological skills and strategies, which following survey analysis, highlighted a significant emphasis on strategies that may influence athlete self-confidence and goal setting. Themes identified by Radcliffe et al. (2015) included confidence building, arousal management, and skill acquisition. Additionally, similar lower level themes that are connected (i.e., goal setting, increasing, or decreasing arousal intensities, self-talk, mental imagery) are all discussed in the 4th edition of the NSCA Essentials of Strength and Conditioning book ( Haff et al., 2016 ). When the interventions aiming to improve mental health expand from basic concepts to mental training beyond a coach's scope, it would be pertinent for the coach to refer the collegiate-athlete to a sport psychology or other mental health consultant ( Fogaca, 2019 ). Moreover, strength and conditioning coaches may find themselves in a position to become key players in facilitating management strategies for collegiate athletes, thereby guiding the athlete in their quest to learn how to best manage the mental and physical energy levels required in the quest for overall optimal performance ( Statler and DuBois, 2016 ).

Conclusion and Future Directions

This review article has summarized some of the ways that strength and conditioning professionals may be able to gain a better understanding of the types of stressors encountered by collegiate athletes, the impact these stressors may have on athletic performance, and suggestions for assisting athletes with developing effective coping strategies to reduce the potential negative physiological and psychological impacts of stress. It has been suggested that strategies learned in the context of training may have a carry-over effect into other areas such as competition. More education is needed in order for strength and conditioning professionals to gain a greater understanding of how to support their athletes with stress-management techniques and resources. Some ways to disseminate further education on stress-management tools for coaches to share with their athletes may include professional development events, such as conferences and clinics.

Author Contributions

All of the authors have contributed to the development of the manuscript both in writing and conceptual development.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The handling editor declared a past collaboration with one of the authors RL.

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Keywords: stress, load management, academic stress, stress management, injury

Citation: Lopes Dos Santos M, Uftring M, Stahl CA, Lockie RG, Alvar B, Mann JB and Dawes JJ (2020) Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies. Front. Sports Act. Living 2:42. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00042

Received: 05 October 2019; Accepted: 30 March 2020; Published: 08 May 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Lopes Dos Santos, Uftring, Stahl, Lockie, Alvar, Mann and Dawes. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: J. Bryan Mann, Bmann@miami.edu

Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

Affiliations.

1 School of Kinesiology, Applied Health and Recreation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States.
2 Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, CA, United States.
3 Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, United States.
4 Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States.
PMID: 33345034
PMCID: PMC7739829
DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00042

Keywords: academic stress; injury; load management; stress; stress management.

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Published: 27 October 2020

College Students’ Time Management: a Self-Regulated Learning Perspective

Christopher A. Wolters ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-8406-038X 1 &
Anna C. Brady 1

Educational Psychology Review volume 33 , pages 1319–1351 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

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Despite its recognized importance for academic success, much of the research investigating time management has proceeded without regard to a comprehensive theoretical model for understanding its connections to students’ engagement, learning, or achievement. Our central argument is that self-regulated learning provides the rich conceptual framework necessary for understanding college students’ time management and for guiding research examining its relationship to their academic success. We advance this larger purpose through four major sections. We begin by describing work supporting the significance of time management within post-secondary contexts. Next, we review the limited empirical findings linking time management and the motivational and strategic processes viewed as central to self-regulated learning. We then evaluate conceptual ties between time management and processes critical to the forethought, performance, and post-performance phases of self-regulated learning. Finally, we discuss commonalities in the antecedents and contextual determinants of self-regulated learning and time management. Throughout these sections, we identify avenues of research that would contribute to a greater understanding of time management and its fit within the framework of self-regulated learning. Together, these efforts demonstrate that time management is a significant self-regulatory process through which students actively manage when and for how long they engage in the activities deemed necessary for reaching their academic goals.

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Wolters, C.A., Brady, A.C. College Students’ Time Management: a Self-Regulated Learning Perspective. Educ Psychol Rev 33 , 1319–1351 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-020-09519-z

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An Analysis of Time Management as a Collegiate Student-Athlete

Owen Sammarone Follow

Public Relations

Business; Leadership Studies

Proulx, Tracy

Advisor Department

Communication Studies

College athletics; time management; student-athlete lifestyle; balance

Millions of individuals take the leap after high school to attend a two or four-year university. During the first couple years of college, students are introduced to the challenges and obstacles of balancing their time. This balance may include academics, clubs, sports, social events, and all of the above. Through my project, I focus my lens on the lives of collegiate student-athletes and how they are thrown into a hectic lifestyle, where perfecting your time management skills seems to be the only route to success.

More than 480,000 NCAA student-athletes compete in 24 sports every year (NCAA.org, 2018). Despite their childhood dreams, it is the unfortunate reality that all student-athletes cannot continue playing their respective sport at the professional level. Low percentages provide the realistic numbers of how many college athletes turn professional. This low rate of advancement increases the importance for student-athletes to complete their degrees and attain jobs in the general work force. Achieving excellence on and off the playing field, requires diligent efforts to manage time effectively.

Through my research, I conducted interviews and held numerous conversations with current and former collegiate student-athletes to hear their thoughts on how time management has directly impacted their college career as a student-athlete. My findings provide a well-structured analysis of how mastering time management skills will provide beneficial results for collegiate student-athletes after their playing days’ end. Through my interactions with current and former student-athletes, I explore their initial challenges with balancing their time as well as the positive benefits that have come to prosper towards the end of their college career. Although my project highlights the lives of collegiate student-athletes, I believe all can relate because everyone has some sort of position or activity that they participate in regularly that pushes them to balance their time effectively in order to complete their tasks to the best of their ability.

Although I am not considered a college student-athlete, my project was able to come to life through my experience as the head student manager of the URI men’s basketball team. Through this position, I, too, was able to learn how to master my time management through balancing all aspects of my college life including having an integral role with the men’s basketball program. Please view my project for an in-depth look on an analysis of time management as a collegiate student-athlete.

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TIME MANAGEMENT AND STUDY SKILLS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT - ATHLETE

by Princess Ramos

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Jusuf Blegur

2019, Facta Universitatis Series: Physical Education and Sport

This research was conducted with an aim to examine the relationship of time management with the physical education learning outcomes in high-school students of both genders, aged 17.60±0.89 (Mean±SD). The data of Time management from respondents were taken using the Time Management Questionnaire (Alay & Kocak, 2002). Data on learning outcomes were taken from the learning value of Physical Education students in the first semester of the school year 2018/2019. The results of the descriptive test indicates that the time management of students was classified as fair (62.71%) and their learning outcomes were also good (83.05%), while the results of the Pearson test showed a significant relationship between time management with physical education learning outcomes (0.314) Thus, educators can train students to develop time management skills by arranging plans before doing, determining and setting work priorities, being responsible for work time and priorities, and avoiding unfavorable activities.

THE CORRELATION BETWEEN TIME MANAGEMENT AND STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Serkan Kurtipek

* Aim. Aim of this research is to examine time management skills according to personality characteristics of college students receiving sport education. Methods: Survey research design, one of quantitative research approaches was used in this research. Research group was composed with criterion sampling method, one of purposeful sampling sorts. Participants of research are 120 male (%64,9), 65 female (%35,1), totally185 students who are study in Gazi University, Department of Physical Education and Sport. In research, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and Time Management Questionnaire was used as data collection tool and it was examined relationship of them with some independent variables (age, sex, sport branch, sport age, national athletics). Datas were analyzed with SPSS 22 program. Firstly in analysis, test of normality was done. Comparisons showing normal distribution were analyzed with t-test and ANOVA. Comparisons not showing normal distribution were analyzed with Mann Whitney U test and Kruskal Wallis test. In relational analysis, Spearman test was used. Conclusions: In conclusion, 18-22 age group was more neurotic than group of over the age of 25. Also female students were more neurotic than male students and students who play an individual sport branch were more neurotic than students who play a team sport branch. Also, female students were more extrovert than male students. There isn't significantly difference in time management skills of participants according to all variable. Conclusion of the research showed that participants who are neurotic and psychotic scheduled and managed time better. Contrary to this conclusion, it was determined that participants who are extrovert sheduled and managed time worse.

INVESTIGATION OF TIME MANAGEMENT SKILLS ACCORDING TOPERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS WHO STUDY SPORT EDUCATION

MD. NAZMUL ALOM TIPU

Asian Research Journal of Arts & Social Sciences

Time management plays a very important role in personal and professional life. Several studies have demonstrated that judicious use of time positively affects academic performance. This study was carried out to assess the relationship between time management and academic achievement of the students of Sylhet Agricultural University. Moreover, the study aimed to know if there was any gender difference in time management. Based on the literature review on time management, survey research has been identified as the most prominent design to study time management. The time management questionnaire developed by Britton and Tesser was used as a study tool for its reliability and validity. A total of 187 students were selected from Sylhet Agricultural University as respondents for the study. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-test, and ANOVA. The results of this study do not suggest a significant relationship between time management and academic achievement. However, females...

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Büşranur EKİNCİ

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ABDURRAHMAN KEPOĞLU

The aim of this study is to examine the correlation between the future perceptions of the students of the sports management department and their time management behavior. For this purpose, Gazi, Selçuk, Muğla and Fırat University Sports Sciences Faculty, Sports Management students (n = 770) participated in the questionnaire voluntarily. The socio-demographic information form of the volunteers was applied to the future time perception scale developed by Husman and Shell (1996) and the Time Management Behavior Scale developed by Britton and Tesser (1991). The obtained data was recorded with the package program "IBM SPSS 22". Mann Whitney U, Kruskal Wallis, Spearman Correlation Analysis for the Correlation between future time sense and time management behavior were applied as a statistical process. As a result, there was a significant Correlation between gender, university and class, time management behaviors, gender, university and class variables. Furthermore, a too weak Co...

Evaluation of the Correlation Between Time Management Perceptions and Time Management Behaviors of Sport Management Students

Time is a priceless source. Time is passing by and never comes back. However, we have so many things we dream to do and so many things that we have to do. Because of the competitive conditions in business life nowadays forcing people and businesses to do so many things simultaneously, the importance of right decision making for the right jobs with the right methods become more and more important. For those who can't perform the necessities of time management effectively in their private and business lives, through not being able to keep themselves updated, it will result in failure and unhappiness. Time, when once consumed, can never be taken back. Therefore, it should be considered consciously, with good planning, and should be used wisely in order for success to be obtained and productivity to be increased. The purpose of this study is, for those students who give importance to education and therefore having master's degree education; in order to cope with the constant changes and developments of the business life, to know that the most significant challenge ahead will be, the misuse of their time management. With this thought in mind, for those students who are working in different jobs at different times and ages, and studying in the same time frame; finding out the relationship between time management skills and academic performance/success, through the application of time management survey is critically important.

THE RELATIONSHIP OF TIME MANAGEMENT TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF MASTER LEVEL STUDENTS

Journal of Research Development in Nursing and Midwifery

2021, Journal of Research Development in Nursing and Midwifery

Background: Time management skill learning and identification are very effective in the study process, and can reduce the adolescents' waste of time and help them increase the academic achievement. The present study aimed to determine the effect of time management skill on the academic achievement of female students. Methods: This interventional study was a randomized controlled field trial. The statistical population consisted of all 2785 female second-grade high school students in 2017-2018 covered by health centers of Gorgan, Iran. Forty eligible students were selected and allocated into intervention and control groups. In the intervention group, a group counseling session of time management training was held for 6 hours in two days. A month after intervention, all students completed the questionnaire, and the students' grade point average (GPA) of the first and second semesters were extracted in 2017-2018. To compare the academic achievement we used the Mann-Witny U test, paired t-test, and Wilcoxon test in SPSS-16. Results: The mean of the GPA of students in control group before and after intervention were 17.95±1.47 and 17.86±1.67, respectively (P=0.43). The GPA in the intervention group was 17.61±0.84 before intervention and showed an increase to 17.75±1.08 after the time management skill training; but the increase was not statistically significant (P=0.43). The results indicated a statistical significant difference in mean scores of 2 subscales; short-term planning and time attitude in the intervention group in comparison with the control group. Conclusion: Despite the fact that time management skill training did not lead to the academic achievement in students, it could improve the short-term planning. Since the follow-up of the present study was short-term, it needs time to improve planning and affecting the academic achievement. It is suggested to examine this assumption in longitudinal and long-term studies.

Effects of Time Management Training on the Academic Achievement of Female High School Students

Sodiq Babatunde

2019, Al-Hikmah Management Review

Deficiency in students' academic performance has become an issue of concern in the academic environment as the performance of these students suffer in relations to effective timing and lack of timely completion of school works and poor overall academic result. Hence, this study aimed at examining the effect of time management on the academic performance of students in selected universities in Kwara State, Nigeria. Additionally, this study has an accumulated population of seventy-two thousand (72,000) drawn from the three selected universities in Kwara State. However, a sample size of 382 was arrived at using the Krejcie and Morgan's Table of sample size. Also, this study employed the close ended questionnaire and retrieved two hundred and ninety-five (295) copies of questionnaire out of the 382 copies distributed. Furthermore, this study analysed the gathered data using the multiple regression analysis with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, version 20). Thus, this study revealed that time management through effective prioritising and scheduling of activities by students have significant effect on students' timely completion of assignments and good CGPA achievements and in turn affect academic performance 2 2 with R of .635 (Sig. .000) and R 616 (Sig. .000) respectively. However, this study concludes that time management does influences students' academic performance in selected universities in Kwara State. Hence, this study recommends that students should pay attention to scheduling and prioritising tasks and also concentrate on important tasks in order to increase their academic performance via timely completion of assignments and CGPA accomplishment. Lastly, this study also recommends that students should make out a list of tasks to be attended to inform of schedules and to be supported with specific time bound attached to them, taking into consideration the major and minor tasks with priority as these will enhance their academic performance.

EFFECT OF TIME MANAGEMENT ON STUDENTS' ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED UNIVERSITIES IN KWARA STATE, NIGERIA

Birkan Tapan

In the university education process, the formation of an effective use of time awareness is very important for students in order to achieve their goals. The success of university students is affected from their usage of time accurately. The aim of this study was to determine the relationship between the time management skills of students and their academic achievements; to evaluate whether students’ time management skills and academic achievements differ according to the socio-demographic characteristics. The study was performed with 341 students in a foundation university at 2014-2015 academic year. In the study, socio-demographic questionnaire and “Time Management Inventory” were used. The data was analysed with SPSS 17.0. The data was distributed normal. Independent samples t-test, one-way analysis of variance, Pearson's correlation test were performed. In the study, it was determined that woman students’ time wastage mean scores were significantly higher than man (p=0,000); ...

Relationship Between Time Management Skills and Academic Achievement of The Students in Vocational School of Health Services

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Effective time management leads to greater academic performance and reduces stress, strain and anxiety among students, however, students facing difficulties to keep a balance between their academic life and personal-social life. This study aims to examine the self-perceptions of undergraduate students’ time management behaviour by using Time Management Behaviour Scale (TMBS) developed by Macan, Shahani, Dipboye and Phillips (1990). The scale consisted of 34 rating items ranges from very often true to seldom true. The population of the study consisted of all undergraduate students studying in the academic session 2018-19 at public sector general category universities in Malakand division. By using stratified sampling technique a sample of 1050 undergraduate students were selected from the sampled universities. Students were also asked to provide their CGPA in their previous semester. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. It was found that prospect...

Relationship Between Time Management Behavior and Academic Performance of University Students

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The Effect of Time Management on the Academic Performance of Students in the Higher Educational Institutions of Islamabad

Nadarajan Manickam

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This study examined the dynamic relationship between the time management skills and the that impact on teenagers’ academic achievement. Time management is the key valuable factor and it may actually affect individual’s overall performance and achievements. However, all of these are related by how individuals manage their time to suit their daily living or to make it flow steadily with their routines. Encouraging settings and environment will surely promote positive outcomes to teenager, besides having good lectures. Nevertheless, good time management is vital for teenagers to shine, however, some of the teens do not have good time management skills that have negatively affected their lives and their academics. The usage of time by teenagers in higher education institutions is related to their daily routines and activities. Their time management can also affect stress levels as they need to cope with their tasks and their personal achievements. In this regard, the hypothesis was anal...

The Importance of Time Management for the Successful of Teenagers’ in Education: An Overview

Abdulrazzaq Hawas

2020, Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews

Purpose: The objective of the research study is to critically analyze the factors impeding time management towards students’ academic performance achievement. Design/methodology/approach: The study was carried out using a well-defined questionnaire collecting samples from 164 undergraduate students studying in the Faculty of Business, Sohar University, Sultanate of Oman from a population of 700 undergraduate students. For the study, the cluster-sampling method was adopted. SPSS was used to perform the statistical analysis. Findings: The empirical results reveal that none of the claimed factors related to time management influence the academic performance of the students. The students’ performance is purely based on their efforts and on their own self-management. Thus, it was concluded that it is the responsibility of the students to manage their time for which they should make their own plans. Practical Implications: The study confirms that the student's stay at the hostel facil...

Do Time Management Factors Impede Students’ Academic Achievement? : A Casestudy – Sohar University, Oman

Aldwin T . Miranda

2022, Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies

The study on the relationship between time management skills and academic performance of students was conducted at Mariano Peralta National High School's Open High School Program. Descriptive correlational design was employed and stratified random sampling technique was used. Data were gathered with the use of adapted survey questionnaire. The data collected were subjected to statistical analysis using Percentage, Mean and Spearman rank-order correlation. Results revealed that most of the respondents exhibit good level of time management skills. With the academic performance, majority of the respondents belonged to approaching proficiency level which means that most of the respondents have developed fundamental knowledge and skills, with minimal guidance from the teacher or with peers, and can transfer them through authentic tasks.

The Relationship between Time Management Skills and Academic Performance of Working Students in Open High School Program

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The Study Efficacy of Time Management Training on Increase Academic Time Management of Students

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The aim of this study is to determine the relationship between the time management skills and academic achievement of students who are potential teachers studying in faculties of education. The research was conducted in the 2007-08 academic term among 849 graduate students in the Faculty of Education at Gazi University. The "Time Management Questionnaire" was used in the research. The results of the research were analysed by using arithmetical mean, standard deviation, simple correlation, and regression analysis techniques. As a result of the research it was determined that student behaviour in the category of time planning was at the highest level and behaviour in the category of time consumers was at the lowest level. The success of the students was above average. There was a significant and positive relation between time planning and time consumers and the academic achievement of the students; there was a low and positive relation between time consumers and academic achievement; there was a meaningful and moderate relation between time management and academic achievement. The relative importance order of the predictor variables on academic achievement, according to the standardized regression coefficient, was time consumers, time planning, and time attitude; each of the three variables had an important predictor effect on the academic achievement of the students. (Contains 4 tables and 1 graphic.)

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The problem investigated in this study was the relationship between students’ time management strategies, study habits and academic performance in Osun State Secondary Schools and the main purpose was to carry out the study titled “Students’ time management strategies, study habits and academic performance of secondary school students in Osun State” to help improve students’ learning and academic performance. Three research questions were asked, three null hypotheses were formulated that guided the study. Proportional, simple and stratified random sampling techniques were used in selecting 1920 respondents from 96 Osun State senior secondary schools in 240 Osun State senior secondary schools. Students’ academic performance pro-forma, students’ time management strategies questionnaire and students’ study habit questionnaire were used in the study. The instruments were reliable at the correlation coefficients of 0.757 and 0.733 for time management strategies and study habit respectively and were both significant at p < 0.05 indicating the consistency of the instruments for the study. The minimum, maximum value of responses, mean and standard deviation were used to analyse the research questions while the hypotheses were analysed using the multiple regression analysis statistics and the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation statistics. The value of students’ academic performance ranged from the minimum performance of 1.00 and the maximum performance of 5.00 and the average mean of 3.44 and standard deviation of 1.284 indicating that most of the students have at least 5 credits with either English language or mathematics with other relevant subjects. The main result of the study indicated the relationship of students’ time management strategies and students’ study habit with the academic performance of students in Osun State Secondary Schools with F = 2421.902 and significant at P < 0.05. The result showed the significant contribution of time management strategies with ß = 0.669; t = 27.092; p < 0.05 while the contribution of study habit stood at ß = 0.198; t = 8.024; p < 0.05. It was also found that there is a significant relationship between students’ time management strategies and academic performance in Osun State Secondary Schools with F = 958.345 and significant at P < 0.05.Study habit variables also as an independent variable has a significant relationship with the students’ academic performance in Osun State Secondary Schools with F = 1117.372 and significant at P < 0.05 while cramming and guessing of examination questions from the study habit reportedly have negative and significant correlation with academic performance. It was concluded that if the students practice effectively the time management strategies and adopt good study skills as a habit, their academic performance will improve. It was recommended in the study that time management strategies and study habits should be taught in the classroom to help students get familiar with them and practice them. Students should practice effectively the time management strategies and adopt good study skills as a habit and the excessive use of cramming and guessing of examination questions as study habit should be discourage.

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Saima K A M R A N Pathan

The main objective of this paper is to analyze the impact of time management on university students’ education and personal life. The aim of this paper is to further broaden current knowledge in the field of time management and its relationship with effectively managing personal life and study as a student. In this paper, we have used Structural Equation Model to test our hypothesis. This study concluded that time management significantly affect study and personal life of students. This research will be helpful for university students and their parents in identifying the importance of time management for successfully managing their personal and academic life.

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Mudassar Nazir

The basic aim of this study is to identify and discuss the awareness of Time Management (TM) and its application in the academic life of Omani Students in English Unit, Dhofar University, Sultanate of Oman. This paper also inculcates and indoctrinates the importance of TM in students’ practical life. It has been observed by the researchers that students complain about the scarcity of time rather than lack of time. The study upholds that pedagogically, TM and its applications in EFL scenario are crucial. Thus the paper advocates that students’ sufferings can be subsided by enhancing their TM skills. This paper finds out that the most of the Omani students at the University of Dhofar suffer from Mismanagement of Time due to lack of focus on study skills.The researchers also give fruitful suggestions in order to overcome the confronted problems such as procrastination, distractions and so on.

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Maysoon Zoubi

2016, Journal of Education and Practice

This study aimed at recognizing the effect of the Time Management Art on academic achievement among high school students in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The researcher employed the descriptiveanalytic research to achieve the purpose of the study where he chose a sample of (2000) high school female and male students as respondents to the questionnaire. In the conclusion, the findings showed that there was a medium degree and static significance at the level of time management according to the high school students in Irbid city. And the presence of statistically significant relationship between the ability to manage time and academic achievement among high school students, also it showed that there was a statically significance at the level ( α≤ 0.05) of this relationship regarding the gender variable running on the behalf of females while there was no any differences according to studying hours . At the end of the study, the researcher recommended the need to hold seminars and le...

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Erik Blair , RV Adams

2018, SAGE Open

Effective time management is associated with greater academic performance and lower levels of anxiety in students; however many students find it hard to find a balance between their studies and their day-to-day lives. This article examines the selfreported time management behaviors of undergraduate engineering students using the Time Management Behavior Scale. Correlation analysis, regression analysis, and model reduction are used to attempt to determine which aspects of time management the students practiced, which time management behaviors were more strongly associated with higher grades within the program, and whether or not those students who self-identified with specific time management behaviors achieved better grades in the program. It was found that students’ perceived control of time was the factor that correlated significantly with cumulative grade point average. On average, it was found that time management behaviors were not significantly different across gender, age, entry qualification, and time already spent in the program.

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GERALDINE DAYANA ARANCIBIA ESCOBAR

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The Impact of Time Management on Students’ Academic Achievement

Fatemeh Alhani

2008, Iranian South Medical Journal

Background: One potential coping strategy frequently offered by university counseling services is time management for studying. Besides stress relief, time management skills will positively influence key outcomes such as academic performance, problem-solving ability, and health. Thus, it is necessary to investigate how college students manage their timing for studying. The aim of the present study was to assess the pattern of college students' time management in Kerman University of Medical Sciences. Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 300 students who were selected by stratified random sampling method among students of Kerman University of Medical Sciences. Information about how students managed their study time during their educational course was collected using a questionnaire which consisted time management stages such as planning, prioritizing, time allocation, listing all study-related tasks and goal setting. Study time management was measured according to...

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Ana-Maria Cazan

2011, Procedia-Social and Behavioral …

Effects of learning styles and time management on academic achievement

ayşe türksoy

Comparison of Time Management and Social Skills of Students In State And Foundation Universities

mourad A Eissa saad

The effectiveness of Time Management Strategies Instruction on students' academic time management and academic self efficacy The effectiveness of Time Management Strategies Instruction on students' academic time management and academic self efficacy

Godwyns Agbude

2015, Creative Education

Time Management Practices, Character Development and Academic Performance among University Undergraduates: Covenant University Experience

Kaveh Farrokh - Langara College

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Faroza Kazi

2017, International Journal of Advance Research and Innovative Ideas in Education

Time is one of our more important resources Effective time management is a skill most people need to make the most out of their personal and professional lives .To a college student it can make the different between a mediocre and a superior performance. Time management can be a common problem for any student in many cases; new student may not have had to manage their time efficiently to ensure good grades. These this research is undertaken with primary data collect for 200 management student from the different courses in NMU region & with this paper we are presenting how student face problem in managing time & what are different strategies for time management which can be used to performed effectively in their career.

Time Management Strategies for College Students - A case of NMU region

Bernice Tsitsia

Journal of Human Resource and Leadership

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the extent of effective time management practices of the teacher-trainees in the Colleges of Education in Ghana. Methodology: The population of the study comprised teacher-trainees (students) of the Public Colleges of Education in the Volta Region of Ghana. Two Colleges were chosen in the region based on convenience sampling technique. In all, a total of 336 participants completed the study survey questionnaire. Statistical data analysis was carried out using the Jamovi Statistical Data Analysis (JSDA) tool and the Microsoft Excel Application package. The instrument was pilot-tested on thirty students. The Cronbach’s Alpha (α) reliability analysis measures were computed. The returned α values obtained on the constructs include 0.95, 0.97 and 0.98, and with the overall α as 0.91. Findings: The findings revealed that the existence of time management strategies to check students’ time consciousness is of low rate in the Colleges. The r...

Effective Time Management Practices Among Colleges of Education Students

Carolyn MacCann

A self-assessment of time management is developed for middle-school students. A sample of entering seventh-graders (N = 814) from five states across the USA completed this instrument, with 340 students retested 6 months later. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis suggested two factors (i.e., Meeting Deadlines and Planning) that adequately explain the variance in time management for this age group. Scales show evidence of reliability and validity; with high internal consistency, reasonable consistency of factor structure over time, moderate to high correlations with Conscientiousness, low correlations with the remaining four personality dimensions of the Big Five, and reasonable prediction of students’ grades. Females score significantly higher on both factors of time management, with gender differences in Meeting Deadlines (but not Planning) mediated by Conscientiousness. Potential applications of the instrument for evaluation, diagnosis, and remediation in educational settings are discussed.

The assessment of time management in middle-school students

obianuju chiekezie

2012, Review of Public Administration and Management

Time Management and Academic Performance of Postgraduate Students in Nigerian Universities

Abaikpa U D E M E Anthony , Cornelia D Thomas

2023, International Journal of Management Sciences and Business Research

The study was designed to examine the relationship between time management and achievement of academic performance in Trinity Polytechnic, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. To achieve this objective, survey research design was adopted for this study. The population of the study consisted of the nine departments of the institution with a sample size of 90. The study utilized a multi stage (random and purposive sampling techniques). The instrument used for data collection was Time Management and Achievement of Academic Performance Questionnaire (TMAAPQ). The questionnaire was used to obtain information with regards to independent variables. Tables, simple percentage and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient were adopted as analytical tools for this study. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance using tables and Simple percentage to answer the research questions and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient to test the hypotheses. The findings revealed that there is positive significant relationship between time management and academic performance of Trinity Polytechnic, uyo,

Time Management and Achievement of Academic Performance in Trinity Polytechnic, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State Author's Details

Abdul Hamzah

2014, Asian Social Science

Time Management, External Motivation, and Students’ Academic Performance: Evidence from a Malaysian Public University

Ekaterine Gulua , Natalia Kharadze

In juvenile age time management has significant impact on the personal development abilities not only in current period, but throughout the life. Goal of the work is to establish the reasonability of Master's degree students' development and correctness of distribution of their time proceeding from scheduled goals on the basis of Master's degree students' time budget analysis. According to individual priorities the personal development depends on reasonably formed balance between physical, spiritual, vocational, social, mental, emotional development and in no circumstances on absolute disregard of one or another factor. At consequent life stages an even development of the individual has an impact on his (her) physical, mental health and working capacity. 523 Master's degree students of Georgian State University in the capital and regions were subjects of research. Study of 48% of time budget of active students of biggest Georgian university actually gives us detailed picture of state-of-the-art. To what extent do students perceive this stage of their personal development? Time management characteristics directly or indirectly show us, to what extent student are able to control their own development and balance the life. Do they comprehend short-term, long-term goals and plans, or not? How do they distribute their time at work, during study, when resting, doing sports, sleeping, when satisfying their cultural and spiritual requirements or accomplishing short-term or long-term plans? How much time do they lose senselessly during a day, what is their nutrition regime and sleeping schedule? Conclusions and future forecasts obtained on the basis of research contain important and relevant information and recommendations not only for individuals of specific groups, but also in general, on functioning of systems regulating various spheres, especially education and labor.

Impact of Time Management on Personal Development of Master's Degree Students

lentoy pacites

Theory and Practice of Time-Management in Education

Crisanto A . Daing

2022, International Journal of Educational Studies in Social Sciences

This study was undertaken to determine the study habits and scholastic performance of junior student-athletes in Educational District IV. The researcher examined the profile of the respondents, scholastic performance in terms of their final average and their study habits in textbook reading, notetaking, reviewing, memorizing, preparing for tests, time management and concentration, using descriptive evaluative correlation approach for a comprehensive analysis of the study. In this study, the researcher utilized an adapted, modified survey-questionnaire which underwent pilot testing, validation and reliability test The researchers found out that the there was a significant relationship between student-athletes' textbook reading, notetaking, reviewing, memorizing, time management and concentration and scholastic performance while there is no significant relationship in their preparation of tests and their scholastic performance. This signifies that the grade obtained by the student-athletes does not have anything to do with how they prepare for their tests. Based on the findings, the researchers noted that most of the respondents were Grade 10, males, and majority are into athletics. Moreover, the researcher concluded that the perception of student-athletes in different domains of study habits are all in the description of Sometimes. This implies that most of the student-athletes are not inclined to their study because they focus more on trainings as preparation for the competitions. Furthermore, the study revealed that the scholastic performance of student-athletes (M=83.43, SD=6.25) indicated that they still manage to obtain a passing grade. Moreover, the study also revealed that the most observed study habit is Memorizing (M=3.24, SD=0.48) while Taking Notes is the least observed study habit (M=3.00, SD=0.60). The researchers recommend that the results of this study be used in the preparation of the School Improvement Plan (SIP), as well as the Annual Implementation Plan (AIP) of each school for sports and academic support for student-athletes in line with the realization of schools' mission and vision.

Dr. Saleena Ummer Velladath

2018, JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND DIAGNOSTIC RESEARCH

Exploring Time Management Skills of First Year Undergraduate Medical and Allied Health Science Students

IJAR Indexing

Background: Time management skill is considered very important for academic success and better quality of life. We aimed to investigate time management in Saudi medical students, and to explore relationship between these skills and socio-demographic features of participants and parameters of academic performance. Methods: This cross-sectional survey was conducted in January 2017 using a self-administered questionnaire. Data were entered and analyzed using IBM-SPSS-20. Data were summarized and analyzed by using frequencies and percentages. Chi-square was used to test associations between time management and socio-demographic features. Pearson correlation was used to measure correlations between time management and parameters of academic performance. Results: A total of 89 participants (37.1% males, 62.9% females) aged23±2.44 (19-29) years participated in this study. Adequate and inadequate time management wasfound in 46% and 54% of the participants, respectively. There was no significant difference of time management in participants on the basis of their gender, study in private or government colleges, residence, rural or urban background, and educational qualification of their parents.More pre-clinical students had adequate time management than clinical students(p=0.019). Significant positive correlationswere observed between time management and total percentage of marks in last exam(r=0.331, p=0.019), and perceived academic satisfaction (r=0.356, p=0.001). Conclusions:More than half participantshad inadequate time management. There was no difference of time management on the basis of most of thesocio-demographic features. Pre-clinical students seemed to manage their time better than clinical students. Time management is positively correlated with total percentage of marks in last exam, and perceived academic satisfaction. Students should increase their time management skills by reading books on this topic and attending relevant trainings and counseling sessions.

IS TIME MANAGEMENT RELATED TO BETTER ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE AND PERCEIVED ACADEMIC SATISFACTION AMONG MEDICAL STUDENTS? A CROSS-SECTIONAL SURVEY IN SAUDI ARABIA

Elita Pertiwi

2022, IJELAL (International Journal of English Learning and Applied Linguistics)

Investigating the Correlation Between Time Management and Accomplishing the Highest Honor of Academic Achievement in Pmpbi Unj the Class of 2019 Students

Sarath Nonis

2010, Journal of Education for Business

Performance of College Students: Impact of Study Time and Study Habits

Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

Marcel lopes dos santos.

1 School of Kinesiology, Applied Health and Recreation, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, United States

Melissa Uftring

Cody a. stahl, robert g. lockie.

2 Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, CA, United States

Brent Alvar

3 Department of Kinesiology, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, CA, United States

J. Bryan Mann

4 Department of Kinesiology and Sport Sciences, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States

J. Jay Dawes

Introduction

The college years are a period of time when young adults experience a significant amount of change and a variety of novel challenges. Academic performance, social demands, adjusting to life away from home, and financial challenges are just a few of the burdens college students must confront (Humphrey et al., 2000 ; Paule and Gilson, 2010 ; Aquilina, 2013 ). In addition to these stressors, collegiate athletes are required to spend a substantial amount of time participating in activities related to their sport, such as attending practices and training sessions, team meetings, travel, and competitions (Humphrey et al., 2000 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; Davis et al., 2019 ; Hyatt and Kavazis, 2019 ). These commitments, in addition to the normal stress associated with college life, may increase a collegiate-athlete's risk of experiencing both physical and mental issues (Li et al., 2017 ; Moreland et al., 2018 ) that may affect their overall health and wellness. For these reasons, it is essential that coaches understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes face in order to help them manage the potentially deleterious effects stress may have on athletic and academic performance.

Strength and conditioning coaches are allied health care professionals whose primary job is to enhance fitness of individuals for the purpose of improving athletic performance (Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). As such, many universities and colleges hire strength and conditioning coaches as part of their athletic staff to help athletes maximize their physical potential (Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). Strength and conditioning coaches strive to increase athletic performance by the systematic application of physical stress to the body via resistance training, and other forms of exercise, to yield a positive adaptation response (Massey et al., 2002 , 2004 , 2009 ). For this reason, they need to understand and to learn how to manage athletes' stress. Additionally, based on the cumulative nature of stress, it is important that both mental and emotional stressors are also considered in programming. It is imperative that strength and conditioning coaches are aware of the multitude of stressors collegiate athletes encounter, in order to incorporate illness and injury risk management education into their training programs (Radcliffe et al., 2015 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ).

Stress and the Stress Response

In its most simplistic definition, stress can be described as a state of physical and psychological activation in response to external demands that exceed one's ability to cope and requires a person to adapt or change behavior. As such, both cognitive or environmental events that trigger stress are called stressors (Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). Stressors can be acute or chronic based on the duration of activation. Acute stressors may be defined as a stressful situation that occurs suddenly and results in physiological arousal (e.g., increase in hormonal levels, blood flow, cardiac output, blood sugar levels, pupil and airway dilation, etc.) (Selye, 1976 ). Once the situation is normalized, a cascade of hormonal reactions occurs to help the body return to a resting state (i.e., homeostasis). However, when acute stressors become chronic in nature, they may increase an individual's risk of developing anxiety, depression, or metabolic disorders (Selye, 1976 ). Moreover, the literature has shown that cumulative stress is correlated with an increased susceptibility to illness and injury (Szivak and Kraemer, 2015 ; Mann et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ). The impact of stress is individualistic and subjective by nature (Williams and Andersen, 1998 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). Additionally, the manner in which athletes respond to a situational or environmental stressor is often determined by their individual perception of the event (Gould and Udry, 1994 ; Williams and Andersen, 1998 ; Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). In this regard, the athlete's perception can either be positive (eustress) or negative (distress). Even though they both cause physiological arousal, eustress also generates positive mental energy whereas distress generates anxiety (Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). Therefore, it is essential that an athlete has the tools and ability to cope with these stressors in order to have the capacity to manage both acute and chronic stress. As such, it is important to understand the types of stressors collegiate athletes are confronted with and how these stressors impact an athlete's performance, both athletically and academically.

Literature Search/Data Collection

Inclusion Criteria

Data Analysis

Academic Stress

Fundamentally, collegiate athletes have two major roles they must balance as part of their commitment to a university: being a college student and an athlete. Academic performance is a significant source of stress for most college students (Aquilina, 2013 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; de Brandt et al., 2018 ; Davis et al., 2019 ). This stress may be further compounded among collegiate athletes based on their need to be successful in the classroom, while simultaneously excelling in their respective sport (Aquilina, 2013 ; López de Subijana et al., 2015 ; Huml et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ). Davis et al. ( 2019 ) conducted surveys on 173 elite junior alpine skiers and reported significant moderate to strong correlations between perceived stress and several variables including depressed mood ( r = 0.591), sleep disturbance ( r = 0.459), fatigue ( r = 0.457), performance demands ( r = 0.523), and goals and development ( r = 0.544). Academic requirements were the highest scoring source of stress of all variables and was most strongly correlated with perceived stress ( r = 0.467). Interestingly, it was not academic rigor that was viewed by the athletes as the largest source of direct stress; rather, the athletes surveyed reported time management as being their biggest challenge related to academic performance (Davis et al., 2019 ). This further corroborates the findings of Hamlin et al. ( 2019 ). The investigators reported that during periods of the academic year in which levels of perceived academic stress were at their highest, students had trouble managing sport practices and studying. These stressors were also associated with a decrease in energy levels and overall sleep quality. These factors may significantly increase the collegiate athlete's susceptibility to illness and injury (Hamlin et al., 2019 ). For this reason, coaches should be aware of and sensitive to the stressors athletes experience as part of the cyclical nature of the academic year and attempt to help athletes find solutions to balancing athletic and academic demands.

According to Aquilina ( 2013 ), collegiate athletes tend to be more committed to sports development and may view their academic career as a contingency plan to their athletic career, rather than a source of personal development. As a result, collegiate athletes often, but certainly not always, prioritize athletic participation over their academic responsibilities (Miller and Kerr, 2002 ; Cosh and Tully, 2014 , 2015 ). Nonetheless, scholarships are usually predicated on both athletic and academic performance. For instance, the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) requires collegiate athletes to achieve and maintain a certain grade point average (GPA). Furthermore, they are also often required to also uphold a certain GPA to maintain an athletic scholarship. The pressure to maintain both high levels of academic and athletic performance may increase the likelihood of triggering mental health issues (i.e., anxiety and depression) (Li et al., 2017 ; Moreland et al., 2018 ).

Mental health issues are a significant concern among college students. There has been an increased emphasis placed on the mental health of collegiate athletes in recent years (Petrie et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2017 , 2019 ; Reardon et al., 2019 ). Based on the 2019 National College Health Assessment survey from the American College Health Association (ACHA) consisting of 67,972 participants, 27.8% of college students reported anxiety, and 20.2% reported experiencing depression which negatively affected their academic performance (American College Health Association American College Health Association-National College Health Assessment II, 2019 ). Approximately 65.7% (50.7% males and 71.8% females) reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the past 12 months, and 45.1% (37.1% males and 47.6% females) reported feeling so depressed that it was difficult for them to function. However, only 24.3% (13% males and 28.4% females) reported being diagnosed and treated by a professional in the past 12 months. Collegiate athletes are not immune to these types of issues. According to information presented by the NCAA, many certified athletic trainers anecdotally state that anxiety is an issue affecting the collegiate-athlete population (NCAA, 2014 ). However, despite the fact that collegiate athletes are exposed to numerous stressors, they are less likely to seek help at a university counseling center than non-athletes (NCAA, 2014 ), which could be related to stigmas that surround mental health services (NCAA, 2014 ; Kaier et al., 2015 ; Egan, 2019 ). This not only has significant implications related to their psychological well-being, but also their physiological health, and consequently their performance. For instance, in a study by Li et al. ( 2017 ) it was found that NCAA Division I athletes who reported preseason anxiety symptoms had a 2.3 times greater injury incidence rate compared to athletes who did not report. This same study discovered that male athletes who reported preseason anxiety and depression had a 2.1 times greater injury incidence, compared to male athletes who did not report symptoms of anxiety and depression. (Lavallée and Flint, 1996 ) also reported a correlation between anxiety and both injury frequency and severity among college football players ( r = 0.43 and r = 0.44, respectively). In their study, athletes reporting high tension/anxiety had a higher rate of injury. It has been suggested that the occurrence of stress and anxiety may cause physiological responses, such as an increase in muscle tension, physical fatigue, and a decrease in neurocognitive and perception processes that can lead to physical injuries (Ivarsson et al., 2017 ). For this reason, it is reasonable to consider that academic stressors may potentiate effects of stress and result in injury and illness in collegiate athletes.

Periods of more intense academic stress increase the susceptibility to illness or injury (Mann et al., 2016 ; Hamlin et al., 2019 ; Li et al., 2019 ). For example, Hamlin et al. ( 2019 ) investigated levels of perceived stress, training loads, injury, and illness incidence in 182 collegiate athletes for the period of one academic year. The highest levels of stress and incidence of illness arise during the examination weeks occurring within the competitive season. In addition, the authors also reported the odds ratio, which is the occurrence of the outcome of interest (i.e., injury), based off the given exposure to the variables of interest (i.e., perceived mood, sleep duration, increased academic stress, and energy levels). Based on a logistic regression, they found that each of the four variables (i.e., mood, energy, sleep duration, and academic stress) was related to the collegiate athletes' likelihood to incur injuries. In summary, decreased levels of perceived mood (odds ratio of 0.89, 0.85–0.0.94 CI) and sleep duration (odds ratio of 0.94, 0.91–0.97 CI), and increased academic stress (odds ratio of 0.91, 0.88–0.94 CI) and energy levels (odds ratio of 1.07, 1.01–1.14 CI), were able to predict injury in these athletes. This corroborates Mann et al. ( 2016 ) who found NCAA Division I football athletes at a Bowl Championship Subdivision university were more likely to become ill or injured during an academically stressful period (i.e., midterm exams or other common test weeks) than during a non-testing week (odds ratio of 1.78 for high academic stress). The athletes were also less likely to get injured during training camp (odds ratio of 3.65 for training camp). Freshmen collegiate athletes may be especially more susceptible to mental health issues than older students. Their transition includes not only the academic environment with its requirements and expectations, but also the adaptation to working with a new coach and teammates. In this regard, Yang et al. ( 2007 ) found an increase in the likelihood of depression that freshmen athletes experienced, as these freshmen were 3.27 times more likely to experience depression than their older teammates. While some stressors are recurrent and inherent in academic life (e.g., attending classes, homework, etc.), others are more situational (e.g., exams, midterms, projects) and may be anticipated by the strength and conditioning coach.

Athletic Stress

The domain of athletics can expose collegiate athletes to additional stressors that are specific to their cohort (e.g., sport-specific, team vs. individual sport) (Aquilina, 2013 ). Time spent training (e.g., physical conditioning and sports practice), competition schedules (e.g., travel time, missing class), dealing with injuries (e.g., physical therapy/rehabilitation, etc.), sport-specific social support (e.g., teammates, coaches) and playing status (e.g., starting, non-starter, being benched, etc.) are just a few of the additional challenges collegiate athletes must confront relative to their dual role of being a student and an athlete (Maloney and McCormick, 1993 ; Scott et al., 2008 ; Etzel, 2009 ; Fogaca, 2019 ). Collegiate athletes who view the demands of stressors from academics and sports as a positive challenge (i.e., an individual's self-confidence or belief in oneself to accomplish the task outweighs any anxiety or emotional worry that is felt) may potentially increase learning capacity and competency (NCAA, 2014 ). However, when these demands are perceived as exceeding the athlete's capacity, this stress can be detrimental to the student's mental and physical health as well as to sport performance (Ivarsson et al., 2017 ; Li et al., 2017 ).

As previously stated, time management has been shown to be a challenge to collegiate athletes. The NCAA rules state that collegiate athletes may only engage in required athletic activities for 4 h per day and 20 h/week during in-season and 8 h/week during off-season throughout the academic year. Although these rules have been clearly outlined, the most recent NCAA GOALS (2016) study reported alarming numbers regarding time commitment to athletic-related activities. Data from over 21,000 collegiate athletes from 600 schools across Divisions I, II, and III were included in this study. Although a breakdown of time commitments was not provided, collegiate athletes reported dedicating up to 34 h per week to athletics (e.g., practices, weight training, meetings with coaches, tactical training, competitions, etc.), in addition to spending between 38.5 and 40 h per week working on academic-related tasks. This report also showed a notable trend related to athletes spending an increase of ~2 more athletics-related hours per week compared to the 2010 GOALS study, along with a decrease of 2 h of personal time (from 19.5 h per week in 2010 to 17.1 in 2015). Furthermore, ~66% of Division I and II and 50% of Division III athletes reported spending as much or more time in their practices during the off-season as during the competitive season (DTHOMAS, 2013 ). These numbers show how important it is for collegiate athletes to develop time management skills to be successful in both academics and athletics. Overall, most collegiate athletes have expressed a need to find time to enjoy their college experience outside of athletic obligations (Paule and Gilson, 2010 ). Despite that, because of the increasing demand for excellence in academics and athletics, collegiate athletes' free time with family and friends is often scarce (Paule and Gilson, 2010 ). Consequently, trainers, coaches, and teammates will likely be the primary source of their weekly social interactivity.

Social interactions within their sport have also been found to relate to factors that may impact an athlete's perceived stress. Interactions with coaches and trainers can be effective or deleterious to an athlete. Effective coaching includes a coaching style that allows for a boost of the athlete's motivation, self-esteem, and efficacy in addition to mitigating the effects of anxiety. On the other hand, poor coaching (i.e., the opposite of effective coaching) can have detrimental psychological effects on an athlete (Gearity and Murray, 2011 ). In a closer examination of the concept of poor coaching practices, Gearity and Murray ( 2011 ) interviewed athletes about their experiences of receiving poor coaching. Following analysis of the interviews, the authors identified the main themes of the “coach being uncaring and unfair,” “practicing poor teaching inhibiting athlete's mental skills,” and “athlete coping.” They stated that inhibition of an athlete's mental skills and coping are associated with the psychological well-being of an athlete. Also, poor coaching may result in mental skills inhibition, distraction, insecurity, and ultimately team division (Gearity and Murray, 2011 ). This combination of factors may compound the negative impacts of stress in athletes and might be especially important for in injured athletes.

Injured athletes have previously been reported to have elevated stress as a result of heightened worry about returning to pre-competition status (Crossman, 1997 ), isolation from teammates if the injury is over a long period of time (Podlog and Eklund, 2007 ) and/or reduced mood or depressive symptoms (Daly et al., 1995 ). In addition, athletes who experience prolonged negative thoughts may be more likely to have decreased rehabilitation attendance or adherence, worse functional outcomes from rehabilitation (e.g., on measures of proprioception, muscular endurance, and agility), and worse post-injury performance (Brewer, 2012 ).

Monitoring Considerations

In addition to poor coaching, insufficient workload management can hinder an athlete's ability to recover and adapt to training, leading to fatigue accumulation (Gabbett et al., 2017 ). Excessive fatigue can impair decision-making ability, coordination and neuromuscular control, and ultimately result in overtraining and injury (Soligard et al., 2016 ). For instance, central fatigue was found to be a direct contributor to anterior cruciate ligament injuries in soccer players (Mclean and Samorezov, 2009 ). Introducing monitoring tools may serve as a means to reduce the detrimental effects of stress in collegiate athletes. Recent research on relationships between athlete workloads, injury, and performance has highlighted the benefits of athlete monitoring (Drew and Finch, 2016 ; Jaspers et al., 2017 ).

Athlete monitoring is often assessed with the measuring and management of workload associated with a combination of sport-related and non-sport-related stressors (Soligard et al., 2016 ). An effective workload management program should aim to detect excessive fatigue, identify its causes, and constantly adapt rest, recovery, training, and competition loads respectively (Soligard et al., 2016 ). The workload for each athlete is based off their current levels of physical and psychological fatigue, wellness, fitness, health, and recovery (Soligard et al., 2016 ). Accumulation of situational or physical stressors will likely result in day-to-day fluctuations in the ability to move external loads and strength train effectively (Fry and Kraemer, 1997 ). Periods of increased academic stress may cause increased levels of fatigue, which can be identified by using these monitoring tools, thereby assisting the coaches with modulating the workload during these specific periods. Coaches who plan to incorporate monitoring and management strategies must have a clear understanding of what they want to achieve from athlete monitoring (Gabbett et al., 2017 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ).

Monitoring External Loads

External load refers to the physical work (e.g., number of sprints, weight lifted, distance traveled, etc.) completed by the athlete during competition, training, and activities of daily living (Soligard et al., 2016 ). This type of load is independent of the athlete's individual characteristics (Wallace et al., 2009 ). Monitoring external loading can aid in the designing of training programs which mimic the external load demands of an athlete's sport, guide rehabilitation programs, and aid in the detection of spikes in external load that may increase the risk of injury (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ).

The means of quantifying external load can involve metrics as simple as pitch counts in baseball and softball (Fleisig and Andrews, 2012 ; Shanley et al., 2012 ) or quantifying lifting session training loads (e.g., sum value of weight lifted during an exercise x number of repetitions × the number of sets). Neuromuscular function testing is another more common way of analyzing external load. This is typically done using such measures such as the counter movement jump, squat jump, or drop jump. A force platform can be used to measure a myriad of outcomes (e.g., peak power, ground contact time, time to take-off, reactive strength index, and jump height), or simply measure jump height in a more traditional manner. Jumping protocols, such as the countermovement jump, have been adopted to examine the recovery of neuromuscular function after athletic competition with significant decreases for up to 72 h commonly reported (Andersson et al., 2008 ; Magalhães et al., 2010 ; Twist and Highton, 2013 ). (Gathercole et al., 2015 ) found reductions in 18 different neuromuscular variables in collegiate athletes following a fatiguing protocol. The variables of eccentric duration, concentric duration, total duration, time to peak force/power, and flight time:contraction time ratio, derived from a countermovement jump were deemed suitable for detecting neuromuscular fatigue with the rise in the use of technology for monitoring, certain sports have adopted specific software that can aid in the monitoring of stress. For example, power output can be measured using devices such as SRM™ or PowerTap™ in cycling (Jobson et al., 2009 ). This data can be analyzed to provide information such as average power or normalized power. The power output can then be converted into a Training Stress Score™ via commercially available software (Marino, 2011 ). More sophisticated measures of external load may involve the use of wearable technology devices such as Global Positioning System (GPS) devices, accelerometers, magnetometer, and gyroscope inertial sensors (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016 ). These devices can quantify external load in several ways, such as duration of movement, total distance covered, speed of movement, acceleration, and decelerations, as well as sport specific movement such as number and height of jumps, number of tackles, or breakaways, etc. (Akenhead and Nassis, 2016 ). The expansion of marketing of wearable devices has been substantial; however, there are questions of validity and reliability related to external load tracking limitations related to proprietary metrics, as well as the overall cost that should be considered when considering the adoption of such devices (Aughey et al., 2016 ; Torres-Ronda and Schelling, 2017 ).

Monitoring Internal Loads

While external load may provide information about an athlete's performance capacity and work completed, it does not provide clear evidence of how athletes are coping with and adapting to the external load (Halson, 2014 ). This type of information comes from the monitoring of internal loads. The term internal load refers to the individual physiological and psychological response to the external stress or load imposed (Wallace et al., 2009 ). Internal load is influenced by a number of factors such as daily life stressors, the environment around the athlete, and coping ability (Soligard et al., 2016 ). Indirect measures, such as the use of heart rate (HR) monitoring, and subjective measurements, such as perceived effort (i.e., ratings of perceived exertion), are examples of internal load monitoring. Using subjective measurement systems is a simple and practical method when dealing with large numbers of athletes (Saw et al., 2016 ; Nässi et al., 2017 ). Subjective reporting of training load (Rating of Perceived Exertion—RPE) (Coyne et al., 2018 ), Session Rating of Perceived Exertion—sRPE) (Coyne et al., 2018 ), perceived stress and recovery (Recovery Stress Questionnaire for Athletes—RESTQ-S), and psychological mood states (Profile of Mood States—POMS) have all been found to be a reliable indicator of training load (Robson-Ansley et al., 2009 ; Saw et al., 2016 ) and only take a few moments to complete. In addition, subjective measures can be more responsive to tracking changes or training responses in athletes than objective measures (Saw et al., 2016 ).

Heart rate (HR) monitoring is a common intrinsic measure of how the body is responding to stress. With training, the reduction of resting HR is typically a clear indication of the heart becoming more efficient and not having to beat as frequently. Alternately, increases of resting HR over time with a continuation of training may be an indicator of too much stress. Improper nutrition, such as regular or ongoing suboptimal intakes of vitamins or minerals, may result in increased ventilation and/or increased heart rate (Lukaski, 2004 ). It has been suggested that the additional stress may lead to parasympathetic hyperactivity, leading to an increase in resting HR (Statler and DuBois, 2016 ). This largely stems from research examining the sensitivity of various HR derived metrics, such as resting HR, HR variability (HRV), and HR recovery (HRR) to fluctuations in training load (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009 ). HRR in athlete monitoring is the rate of HR decline after the cessation of exercise. A common measure of HHR is the use of a 2 min step test followed by a 60 s HR measurement. The combination of the exercise (stress) on the cardiovascular system and then its subsequent return toward baseline has been used as an indicator of autonomic function and training status in athletes (Daanen et al., 2012 ). In collegiate athletes it was found that hydration status impacted HRR following moderate to hard straining sessions (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018 ). Athletes who followed a prescription hydration plan performed better in the standing long jump, tracked objects faster, and showed faster HRR vs. athletes who followed their normal self-selected hydration plan (Ayotte and Corcoran, 2018 ). To date, HR monitoring and the various derivatives have mainly been successful in detecting changes in training load and performance in endurance athletes (Borresen and Ian Lambert, 2009 ; Lamberts et al., 2009 ; Thorpe et al., 2017 ). Although heart rate monitoring can provide additional physiological insight for aerobic sessions or events, it thus far has not been found to be an accurate measurement for quantifying internal load during many explosive, short duration anaerobic activities (Bosquet et al., 2008 ).

A multitude of studies have reported the reliability and validity of using RPE and sRPE across a range of training modalities (Foster, 1998 ; Impellizzeri et al., 2004 ; Sweet et al., 2004 ). This measure can be used to create a number of metrics such as session load (sRPE × duration in minutes), daily load (sum of all session loads for that day), weekly training load (sum of all daily training loads for entire week), monotony (standard deviation of weekly training load), and strain (daily or weekly training load × monotony) (Foster, 1998 ). Qualitative questionnaires that monitor stress and fatigue have been well-established as tools to use with athletes (see Table 1 for examples of commonly used questionnaires in research). Using short daily wellness questionnaires may allow coaches to generate a wellness score which then can be adjusted based off of the stress the athlete may be feeling to meet the daily load target (Foster, 1998 ; Robson-Ansley et al., 2009 ). However, strength and conditioning coaches need to be mindful that these questionnaires may require sports psychologist or other licensed professional to examine and provide the results. An alternative that may be better suited for strength and conditioning professionals to use could be to incorporate some of the themes of those questionnaires into programing.

Overview of common tool/measures used by researchers to monitor training load.

A Multifaceted Approach

Dissociation between external and internal load units may be indicative of the state of fatigue of an athlete. Utilizing a monitoring system in which the athlete is able to make adjustments to their training loads in accordance with how they are feeling in that moment can be a useful tool for assisting the athlete in managing stress. Auto-regulation is a method of programming that allows for adjustments based on the results of one or more readiness tests. When implemented properly, auto regulation enables the coach or athlete to optimize training based on the athlete's given readiness for training on a particular day, thereby aiming to avoid potential overtraining (Kraemer and Fleck, 2018 ). Several studies have found that using movement velocity to designate resistance training intensities can result in significant improvements in maximal strength and athletic performance (Pareja-Blanco et al., 2014 , 2017 ; Mann et al., 2015 ). Velocity based training allows the coach and athlete to view real time feedback for the given lifts, thereby allowing them to observe how the athlete is performing in that moment. If the athlete is failing to meet the prescribed velocity or the velocity drops greater than a predetermined amount between sets, then this should signal the coach to investigate. If there is a higher than normal amount of stress on that athlete for the day, that could be a potential reason. This type of combination style program of using a quantitative or objective measurement (s) and a subjective measure of wellness (qualitative questionnaire) has recently been reported to be an effective tool in monitoring individuals apart of a team (Starling et al., 2019 ). The subjective measure in this study was the readiness to train questionnaire (RTT-Q) and the objective measures were the HRR 6min test (specifically the HRR 60s = recorded as decrease in HR in the 60 s after termination of the test) to assess autonomic function and the standing long jump (SLJ) to measure neuromuscular function. The findings found that, based on the absolute typical error of measurement, the HRR 60s and SLJ could detect medium and large changes in fatigue and readiness. The test took roughly 8 min for the entire team, which included a group consisting of 24 college-age athletes. There are many other combinations of monitoring variables and strategies that coaches and athletes may utilize.

Data Analysis – How to Utilize the Measures

Regardless of what type of monitoring tool a coach or athlete may incorporate, it is essential to understand how to analyze this data. There are excellent resources available which discuss this topic in great detail (Gabbett et al., 2017 ; Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ). This section will highlight two main conclusions from these sources and briefly describe two of the main statistical practices and concepts discussed. The use of z-scores or modified z-scores has been proposed as a method of detecting meaningful change in athlete data (Clubb and McGuigan, 2018 ; Thornton et al., 2019 ). For different monitoring tools listed in Table 1 , the following formula would be an example of how to assess changes: (Athlete daily score—Baseline score)/Standard deviation of baseline. The baseline would likely be based off an appropriate period such as the scores across 2 weeks during the preseason.

In sports and sports science, the use of a magnitude-based inference (MBI) has been suggested as more appropriate and easier to understand when examining meaningful changes in athletic data, than null-hypothesis significance testing (NHST) (Buchheit, 2014 ). Additional methods to assess meaningful change that are similar to MBI are using standard deviation, typical error, effect sizes, smallest worthwhile change (SWC), and coefficient of variation (Thornton et al., 2019 ). It should be noted that all of these methods have faced criticism from sources such as statisticians. It is important to understand that the testing methods, measurements, and analysis should be based on the resources and intended goals from use, which will differ from every group and individual. Once identified, it is up to the practitioner to keep this system the same, in order to collect data that can then be examined to understand meaningful information for each setting (Thornton et al., 2019 ).

Managing and Coping Strategies

There are some basic skills that strength and conditioning coaches can teach (while staying within their scope of practice). Coaches can introduce their athletes to basic lifestyle concepts, such as practicing deep breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and developing healthy sleep habits (i.e., turning off their mobile devices 1 h before bed and aiming for 8 h of sleep each night, etc.). A survey of strength and conditioning practitioners by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015 ) found that strategies used by practitioners included a mix of cognitive and behavioral strategies, which was used as justification for recommending practitioners find opportunities to guide professional development toward awareness strategies. Practitioners reported using a wide variety of psychological skills and strategies, which following survey analysis, highlighted a significant emphasis on strategies that may influence athlete self-confidence and goal setting. Themes identified by Radcliffe et al. ( 2015 ) included confidence building, arousal management, and skill acquisition. Additionally, similar lower level themes that are connected (i.e., goal setting, increasing, or decreasing arousal intensities, self-talk, mental imagery) are all discussed in the 4th edition of the NSCA Essentials of Strength and Conditioning book (Haff et al., 2016 ). When the interventions aiming to improve mental health expand from basic concepts to mental training beyond a coach's scope, it would be pertinent for the coach to refer the collegiate-athlete to a sport psychology or other mental health consultant (Fogaca, 2019 ). Moreover, strength and conditioning coaches may find themselves in a position to become key players in facilitating management strategies for collegiate athletes, thereby guiding the athlete in their quest to learn how to best manage the mental and physical energy levels required in the quest for overall optimal performance (Statler and DuBois, 2016 ).

Conclusion and Future Directions

Author Contributions

All of the authors have contributed to the development of the manuscript both in writing and conceptual development.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The handling editor declared a past collaboration with one of the authors RL.

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Student-Athlete’s Time Management Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com
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PDF Athletic participation, time management and academic performance of
The ABC Time Management Model has been integrated into the training where athletes have been informed and required of the three fundamental ideas: Awareness of the fact that every second and...
(PDF) Athletic participation, time management and ...
This paper attempted to confirm that the existence of the time management variable can help boost the positive relationship between athletic participation and academic performance among 96...
Effects of Student Athletics on Academic Performance
On the contrary, studies are recognizing the positives of athletic involvement, such as increased time management, satisfaction with school, and acknowledgement that the positives outcomes may outweigh the negative outcomes (Maloney & McCormick, 1993; Byrd & Ross, 1991; Pascarella, Truckenmiller & Terenzini, 1999).
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The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population. Introduction
Trinity College Student-Athletes and Time Management
December 19, 2011 Student-athletes comprise roughly one third of the undergraduate student body at Trinity College. This study looks into how student-athletes prioritize athletics, academics and their social life and how they budget their time accordingly.
Balancing academic and athletic time management : A qualitative
The results indicated that : (1) time spent participating in football-related activities influenced the amount of time which could be spent engaging in academics; (2) the management of one's time emerged as the most difficult aspect of being a member in the university's football program; (3) football commitments occupied so much time during the ...
Balancing academic and athletic time management
The results indicated that : (1) time spent participating in football-related activities influenced the amount of time which could be spent engaging in academics; (2) the management of one's...
Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A
In addition to the burdens facing most college students, collegiate athletes must devote a substantial amount of time to improving their sporting abilities. The strength and conditioning professional sees the athlete on nearly a daily basis and is able to recognize the changes in performance and behavior an athlete may exhibit as a result of ...
Perceived Athletic and Academic Stressors and Time Management of
Introduction A typical National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division-I affiliated member institution provides support to at least seven men's and women's sports that sustains over 300 student-athletes. These student-athletes perform both on and off the court on a daily basis while completing their homework and studying for tests just like non-athlete students. Furthermore, they ...
College Students' Time Management: a Self-Regulated Learning
Although younger students increasingly face multiple and strong demands on their time (Hilbrecht et al. 2008; Won and Yu 2018; Shaunessy-Dedrick et al. 2015), we focus our discussion on university students because they represent an especially salient population within which to consider time management.As students transition from secondary school to university, they typically experience an ...
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6 GUIDE FOR THE COLLEGE-BOUND STUDENT-ATHLETE 14.5 Socializing/ Relaxing 33 Athletics 35.5 Academics 85 Other (e.g., sleep, job, extracurriculars) Did you know? These activities do not count toward a team or student-athlete s countable athletically related activities limit. TIME MANAGEMENTTime Management What Division I student-athletes should ...
The influence of sports participation on academic ...
1. Introduction. Scholars have traditionally expressed substantial interest in understanding whether sports participation impacts on students' academic performance by addressing the topic from different perspectives, such as education, psychology, sociology, and sports (e.g., Feldman and Matjasko, 2005, Fredricks, 2012).Despite the wealth of research on the correlation between sports ...
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Each student is expected to have time management skills which include setting goals and priorities, using time, management mechanisms and managing time (Atos, 2014;Julyana & Lianawati,...
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The student athletes are mostly females, 14-15 years old, in Grade 10, had been student athlete for three years and belonging to family with monthly income of P60,000 and above.
An Analysis of Time Management as a Collegiate Student-Athlete
Through my project, I focus my lens on the lives of collegiate student-athletes and how they are thrown into a hectic lifestyle, where perfecting your time management skills seems to be the only route to success. More than 480,000 NCAA student-athletes compete in 24 sports every year (NCAA.org, 2018). Despite their childhood dreams, it is the ...
[PDF] Students Athletes Academic Improvement through Time Management
The study is focused upon the student athlete improvement through time management skills in University of Baghdad. The participant selected for the study were the student athletes who have been enrolled in the Spring 2018 semester and had participated in at least in once in the sport activity and moreover they are registered for the Fall 2018 semester 100 participants were selected on the ...
(PDF) A Systematic Literature Review on the Academic and Athletic
The 42 records identified in this review suggest that research on the academic and athletic identities of student-athletes has focused on the themes of: identity development, role conflict,...
Digital Commons @ CSUMB
5-2016 Increasing Time Management Skills to Improve Student Athletes' GPA Jeffrey Owen California State University, Monterey Bay Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.csumb.edu/caps_thes_all Recommended Citation Owen, Jeffrey, "Increasing Time Management Skills to Improve Student Athletes' GPA" (2016).
PDF Is there a relationship between the time management skills of sports
This study aims to examine the relationship between the time management skills of sports management students and their career decision self-efficacy. The study group of the study research consisted of 279 Sports Management Department students who were studying in the Faculty of Sport Sciences at a
Time Management and Study Skills of High School Student
In research, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and Time Management Questionnaire was used as data collection tool and it was examined relationship of them with some independent variables (age, sex, sport branch, sport age, national athletics). Datas were analyzed with SPSS 22 program. Firstly in analysis, test of normality was done.
(PDF) The student athlete experience
Multivariate comparisons were made between the four areas of college life experiences of 154 African American women student athletes and 793 White women student athletes, 250 African American ...
Impact of Time Management Behaviors on Undergraduate Engineering
Time management can be defined as clusters of behavioral skills that are important in the organization of study and course load (Lay & Schouwenburg, 1993).Empirical evidence suggests that effective time management is associated with greater academic achievement (McKenzie & Gow, 2004; Trueman & Hartley, 1996) as students learn coping strategies that allow them to negotiate competing demands.
Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A
The purpose of this paper is to discuss stressors experienced by collegiate athletes, developing an early detection system through monitoring techniques that identify the detrimental effects of stress, and discuss appropriate stress management strategies for this population.

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Academic Stress

Athletic Stress

Monitoring Considerations

Monitoring External Loads

Monitoring Internal Loads

A Multifaceted Approach

Data Analysis – How to Utilize the Measures

Managing and Coping Strategies

Conclusion and Future Directions

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

Stress in Academic and Athletic Performance in Collegiate Athletes: A Narrative Review of Sources and Monitoring Strategies

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Introduction

Stress and the Stress Response

Literature Search/Data Collection

Inclusion Criteria

Data Analysis

Academic Stress

Athletic Stress

Monitoring Considerations

Monitoring External Loads

Monitoring Internal Loads

A Multifaceted Approach

Data Analysis – How to Utilize the Measures

Managing and Coping Strategies

Conclusion and Future Directions

Author Contributions

Conflict of Interest

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